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References

Early Introduction

  • Abrams E, et al. Early Solid Food Introduction: Role in Food Allergy Prevention and Implications for Breastfeeding. J Pediatr. 2017 May;184:13-18
  • Adatia, A., Clarke, A. E., Yanishevsky, Y., & Ben-Shoshan, M. (2017). Sesame allergy: current perspectives. Journal of Asthma and Allergy, 10, 141–151. doi:10.2147/JAA.S113612
  • Du Toit G, Roberts G, Sayre PH, Bahnson HT, Radulovic S, Santos AF, Brough HA, Phippard D, Basting M, Feeney M, Turcanu V. Randomized trial of peanut consumption in infants at risk for peanut allergy. N Engl J Med. 2015 Feb 26;372:803-13.
  • Du Toit G, Sayre PH, Roberts G, et al. Follow-up to adolescence after early peanut introduction for allergy prevention. NEJM Evid. 2024;3(6). doi:10.1056/EVIDoa2300311
  • Fleischer DM; Chan ES; Venter C; Spergel JM; Abrams EM; Stukus D; Groetch M; Shaker M; Greenhawt M. A Consensus Approach to the Primary Prevention of Food Allergy Through Nutrition: Guidance from the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology; American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology; and the Canadian Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. In Practice, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33250376/.
  • Gabryszewski SJ, Dudley J, Faerber JA, Grundmeier RW, Fiks AG, Spergel JM, Hill DA. Guidelines for early food introduction and patterns of food allergy. Pediatrics. 2025;156(5):e2024070516. doi:10.1542/peds.2024-070516.
  • Katz, Y et al. Early exposure to cow’s milk protein is protective against IgE-mediated cow’s milk protein allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010 Jul;126(1):77-82
  • Keet C, Pistiner M, Plesa M, Szelag D, Shreffler W, Wood R, Dunlop J, Peng R, Dantzer J, Togias A. Age and eczema severity, but not family history, are major risk factors for peanut allergy in infancy. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2021.
  • Keet C, Plesa M, Szelag D, et al. Ara h 2-specific IgE is superior to whole peanut extract-based serology or skin prick test for diagnosis of peanut allergy in infancy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2021;147(3):977-983.e2. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2020.11.034
  • Koplin JJ, Peters RL, Tang MLK, et al. Egg Allergy Prevalence Before and After Guidelines for Earlier Egg Introduction. JAMA Pediatr. Published Online June 8, 2026. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2026.2080
  • National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Disease. Addendum Guidelines for the Prevention of Peanut Allergy in the United States. 2017. doi:10.1097/01.JAA.0000512231.15808.66
  • Nwaru Bi, et al. Age at the introduction of solid foods during the first year and allergic sensitization at age 5 years. Pediatrics. 2010 Jan;125(1):50-9
  • Onizawa Y et al. The Association of the Delayed Introduction of Cow’s Milk with IgE-Mediated Cow’s Milk Allergies. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2016 May-Jun;4(3):481-488.e2
  • Perkin MR, Logan K, Tseng A, Raji B, Ayis S, Peacock J, Brough H, Marrs T, Radulovic S, Craven J, Flohr C. Randomized trial of introduction of allergenic foods in breast-fed infants. N Engl J Med. 2016 May 5;374:1733-43.
  • Poole JA, et al. Timing of initial exposure to cereal grains and the risk of wheat allergy. Pediatrics. 2006 Jun;117(6):2175-82
  • Sakihara T, Otsuji K, Arakaki Y, Hamada K, Sugiura S, Ito K. Randomized trial of early infant formula introduction to prevent cow’s milk allergy. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2021;147(1). doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2020.08.021
  • Sicherer, S., Allen, K., Lack, G., Taylor, S., Donovan, S., Oria, M. (2017). Critical issues in food allergy: A national academies consensus report. Pediatrics, 140(2): e20170194. DOI: 10.1542/peds.2017-0194
  • U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025. 9th Edition. December 2020. Available at DietaryGuidelines.gov.
  • Vassilopoulou E, Karastogiannidou C, Comotti A, Agostoni C, Maragkou MK, Papadopoulos NG, et al. Adherence to Mediterranean diet during pregnancy, breastfeeding, and development of food allergy in the offspring: Results from the MEDALLION cohort study. Allergy. 2025. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40944444/
  • Venter C, Beltran J, Bracchiglione J, et al. Immunonutrition in Early Life: The Role of Complementary Feeding, Dietary Patterns, and Nutritional Exposures on the Health of Young Children-An EAACI Scoping Review. Allergy. 2026. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/all.70429
  • Venter C, Meyer RW, Greenhawt M, Pali-Schöll I, Nwaru B, Roduit C, et al. Role of dietary fiber in promoting immune health-An EAACI position paper. Allergy. 2022;77(11):3185-3198. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35801383/
  • Venter C, Pickett-Nairne K, Leung D, Fleischer D, O’Mahony L, Glueck DH, et al. Maternal allergy-preventive diet index, offspring infant diet diversity, and childhood allergic diseases. Allergy. 2024;79(12):3475-3488. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39192779/
  • Weinberger et al. Current perspectives on tree nut allergy: a review. J Asthma Allergy. 2018 Mar 26;11:41-51

Eczema

  • Brough HA, et al. (2020). Atopic dermatitis increases the effect of environmental peanut exposure on peanut sensitization. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 146(2):367–375.
  • Brough HA, et al. (2020) Environmental peanut exposure and the risk of peanut sensitization and allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol.145(2):633–643.
  • Choragudi, S., Yosipovitch, G. (2023). Trends in the prevalence of eczema among US children by age, sex, race, and ethnicity from 1997 to 2018. JAMA Dermatology. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2022.6647 
  • Chu, D. K., Schneider, L., Asiniwasis, R. N., Boguniewicz, M., Casale, T. B., Chu, A. W. L., Eigenmann, P. A., Fleischer, D. M., Greenhawt, M., Horner, C. C., Mack, D. P., Milner, J. D., Oppenheimer, J., Schneider, A. T., Searing, D. A., Spergel, J. M., Stukus, D. R., Venter, C., Wang, J., … Golden, D. B. K. (2024). Atopic dermatitis (eczema) guidelines: 2023 American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology/American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology Joint Task Force on Practice Parameters GRADE- and Institute of Medicine-based recommendations. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology, 132 (3), 274–312.
  • Eichenfield, L., et al. (2014). Guidelines of care for the management of atopic dermatitis: section 1. Diagnosis and assessment of atopic dermatitis. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 70(2), 338–351.
  • Flohr C, et al. (2021). Atopic dermatitis and the risk of food allergy. Allergy. 76(3):748–761.
  • Greenhawt M, et al. (2021) Peanut allergen persistence on hands and the effect of handwashing. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol.127(2):214–220.
  • Lack G, et al. (2022). The dual-allergen exposure hypothesis: Revisited and updated. Allergy. 2022;77(1):7–16.
  • Leung DYM, Berdyshev E, Goleva E. (2020). Cutaneous barrier dysfunction in allergic diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 145(6):1485–1497.
  • Leyva-Castillo JM, et al. (2023). Epithelial-derived cytokines in allergic skin inflammation and food allergy. Nat Rev Immunol. 23(4):233–247.
  • Maloney JM, et al. (2020). Persistence of peanut protein in saliva after ingestion. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 146(4):889–891.
  • Monir, R., Schoch, J., Garven, C., Neu, J., Lemas, D. (2022). Association between atopic dermatitis and race from infancy to early childhood: a retrospective cohort study. International Journal of Dermatology.
  • Perry TT, et al. (2020) Distribution of peanut allergen in the environment and effectiveness of cleaning methods. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 145(2):667–669.
  • Roduit, C., Frei, R., Depner, M., et al. (2017). Phenotypes of atopic dermatitis depending on the timing of onset and progression in childhood. JAMA Pediatrics.
  • Schoch, J., Anderson, K., Jones, A., Tollefson, M. (2025). Atopic Dermatitis: Update on Skin-Directed Management: Clinical Report. American Academy of Pediatrics.
  • Smeekens JM, et al. (2021). Household food allergen exposure and sensitization in early life. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep.21:48.
  • Strid J, Hourihane J, Kimber I, Callard R, Strobel S. (2022). Epicutaneous exposure to food allergens and the development of food allergy. Clin Exp Allergy. 52(4):465–477.
  • Tham, E., Leung, D. (2019). Mechanisms by which atopic dermatitis predisposes to food allergy and the atopic march. Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology Research. https://doi.org/10.4168/aair.2019.11.1.4
  • Turner PJ, Campbell DE, Boyle RJ, Levin ME. (2021). Primary prevention of food allergy: Translating evidence from clinical trials to population-based recommendations. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 147(6):2020–2029.

Allergy Management

  • American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Eosinophilic Esophagitis: Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment. American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. [updated 2020 February 24; cited 2020 October 2]. Available from AAAA&I
  • Boyce JA et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of food allergy in the United States: report of the NIAID-sponsored expert panel. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2010 Dec 1;126(6):S1-58.
  • Dosanjh, A. (2013). Infant anaphylaxis: The importance of early recognition. Journal of Asthma and Allergy, 6, 103-107.
  • Dribin TE, et al. Severity grading system for acute allergic reactions: a multidisciplinary Delphi study. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2021 Jan 19. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2021.01.003.
  • Greenhawt, M., Gupta, R. S., Meadows, J. A., Pistiner, M., Spergel, J. M., Camargo, C. A., Simons, F. E. R., & Lieberman, P. L. (2019). Guiding principles for the recognition, diagnosis, and management of infants with anaphylaxis: An expert panel consensus. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 7(4), 1148-1156.
  • Pistiner M, Mendez-Reyes JE, Eftekhari S, Carver M, Lieberman J, Wang J, Camargo CA Jr. Caregiver reported presentation of severe food-induced allergic reactions in infants and toddlers. JACI In-practice. 2020. Nov 18;S2213-2198(20)31224-1. doi: 10.1016/j.jaip.2020.11.005.
  • Simons FE. First-aid treatment of anaphylaxis to food: focus on epinephrine. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2004 May 1;113(5):837-44.
  • Simons FE, Clark S, Camargo Jr CA. Anaphylaxis in the community: learning from the survivors. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2009 Aug 1;124(2):301-6.
  • Wang, J. Sicherer, S.H. AAP SOAI. Guidance on Completing a Written Allergy and Anaphylaxis Emergency Plan. Pediatrics. Mar 2017, 139 (3) e20164005; doi: 10.1542/peds.2016-4005.